Cervical Smear Test: How to Detect Cervical Cancer in Its Earliest Stage

The cervical smear test (also called Pap test - popularly so termed after its Greek inventor, Georgios N. Papanikolaou) is used to detect cervical cancer in its earliest stage. This medical screening method has achieved quite a success, with statistics indicating that the death rate from cervical cancer has dramatically dropped since the cervical smear test was introduced into the medical field in the late 1940s.

The success of the cervical smear test may be attributed to the fact that cervical cancer develops slowly, as it can take several years for cells to become cancerous. Regular pelvic examinations and screening enable physicians to determine the existence of cervical cancer in its most treatable stage; they likewise keep to a minimum the long-term risks associated with a single false-negative result.

But inspite of the impressive accomplishment of the cervical smear test, the number of cases of deaths in North America alone each year from cervical cancer is still something to be concerned about. Doctors rue this fact, saying that cervical cancer is actually nearly 100 percent curable if detected early. The sad reality is that many women are not being tested, and the ratio is becoming progressively greater. Doctors have other concerns: insufficient testing, the wrong conclusions that are sometimes made on some test results, and the failure of some of those who are tested to follow up on abnormal results.

Perhaps one of the questions that has to be clearly answered is, "when should a woman undergo cervical smear test?" The answer to this question, according to the Well Woman Centre, is that "All women who are, or have been, sexually active should have smear tests done." She should undergo the test within six months of first having sexual intercourse, and again six to 12 months later. She may, thereafter, repeat the test at two to three years' intervals depending on the guidelines set by the doctor who initially performed the test on her.

The cervical smear test is a risk-free procedure and takes only a few seconds to perform. The procedure involves the scraping away of some cervical cells, which are then examined in the medical laboratory for any abnormalities; the test result is later prepared, which may either be negative or positive.

If the test result is negative, it indicates that the cells appear normal. A positive test result, on the other hand, indicates that the cells are abnormal, suggesting the existence of a precancerous or cancerous condition. To confirm the findings, doctors recommend follow-up tests or repeat smears, such as the reexamination of the cervix with the use of a colposcope and the removal of cervical tissue for microscopic analysis, or biopsy.

A cervical smear test result may not always be accurate, which means that it can be a false positive or a false negative. A false positive implies abnormalities even when none really do. This can definitely be frightening but additional testing will most certainly reverse the result. A false negative, on the other hand, suggests that the cells are normal when actually they are not. To avoid the potential risk of a false negative result, regular testing is of utmost importance.

To increase the chances of getting an error-free test result, a woman should schedule a test for ten to 20 days after her period begins. Note that cast-off cells and blood make it more difficult to spot abnormalities. A woman likewise needs to refrain from sexual intercourse and douching for a couple of days before undergoing a cervical smear test. [Read the Original Article]

Sources: http://www.wellwomancentre.ie/docs/Cervical_Screening. pdf and http://www.phaa.com/cervical-smear-test.htm

Osteoporosis: Prevention, Prognostication, and Treatment Options

One of the most common and serious conditions involving the skeletal bones is osteoporosis. In many cases of this condition, the skeletal bones lose their natural toughness that they break, causing very little trauma or none at all. The bones of the wrist, hip, and spine are those most likely to fracture in osteoporosis.

As it is, the complicated nature of osteoporosis is not completely understood, although it appears that certain factors - or a combination thereof - play an important role in effecting the diminishing by degrees of the robustness of the bones, this being the distinguishing characteristic of osteoporosis.

Many of those who have the disease do not realize that the condition is present in them until the same has become well settled. A break in the bones of the wrist or hip, which occurs as a consequence of a natural tendency, may be an early sign of the existence of the condition. Pain in the lower back, caused by vertebral crush fracture - the collapse of a vertebra - is a typical sign in some cases. But the most perceptible consequence of the disintegration of the vertebrae is widow's hump, a condition characterized by the forward-curving of the spine in the upper back, resulting further to the tapering of the individual's height.

In measuring bone density in the wrist, hip, and spine, doctors use a couple of medical techniques: dual-photon absorptiometry, or DPA, and quantitative CT scanning. As far as high-risk subjects are concerned, these two medical techniques are very useful in assessing the extent of the loss of bodily minerals that has occurred. But in normal subjects, the prognosticative value of these techniques may be limited. It is for this reason that the use of these medical techniques for screening purposes is not deemed cost-effective.

While researchers and medical experts do not fully agree on how best to deal with osteoporosis medically, they are united in one important point: Prevention is a vital prelude to any program of actions necessary to take in keeping osteoporosis in check. Some preventive measures must be mentioned in this regard: ensuring that the body has a sufficient supply of dietary calcium; shunning the two well-identified risk factors - excessive drinking and smoking; and engaging in some moderate bone-stressing exercises as jogging. It must likewise be made clear here that engaging in immoderate exercise or weight loss programs can bring about susceptibility to osteoporosis in the individual concerned.

In high-risk subjects involving post-menopausal women, hormone-replacement therapy is considered an ideal treatment. However, for those with a history of certain conditions, such as uterine cancer, liver disease, or stroke, estrogen therapy may not be appropriate. Also, this therapy has been pointed to as a factor in increasing slightly the occurrence of uterine cancer specifically in women who have not had a hysterectomy, the surgical removal of the uterus. It may help lessen the risk if progestogen is given at the same time, but the combination may present another risk in the form of cyclic bleeding which is much like menstruation.

Other treatment techniques have been tried or used on women who have lost bone sturdiness and are experiencing instances of fracture. For example, a combination vitamin D-calcium-sodium fluoride medication or an injection of calcitonin (a hormone that lowers level of calcium in the blood plasma) has been successfully used in such cases of osteoporosis. [Read the Original Article]

Sources:

http://www.nof.org/osteoporosis/index.htm
http://www.medicinenet.com/osteoporosis/article.htm

Rabbit Fever: How Humans Can Contract the Disease Tularemia

Arriving home from school one afternoon, my youngest daughter, then only 8, asked me if she could take home a rabbit. My answer was a firm "no," knowing fully well that she was referring to that rabbit the parents of one of her classmates were letting go (i.e., turned over to a veterinarian for proper handling or disposition) because the animal was found to be the cause of her classmate's being ill with tularemia. In fact, that incident became the talk in my daughter's school for several days, and some of the children - my daughter included - thought they can make a bid to have the rabbit for them to take care.

Tularemia, or rabbit fever, is an infectious disease having such severe symptoms as chills, fever, vomiting, and prostration, all of which develop about three days after the specific germ has invaded the tissues. A couple of days from the occurrence of these symptoms, an elevated lesion develops at the infection's site which later becomes ulcerous. It is possible that there is more than one lesion, especially in cases when either the eye or mouth is involved.

The lymph nodes adjacent to the ulcer/s form abscesses and become enlarged. Within the next three days, high fever occurs; in a lot of cases, a lung may become involved much like in pneumonia. At this stage, the spleen usually becomes enlarged. This sequence of development of rabbit fever was explained to me by the mother of my daughter's classmate during a conversation I had with her several weeks after her daughter had recovered completely from the illness and resumed attending her classes.

Untreated cases of rabbit fever can cause the body's temperature to remain high for four weeks, declining slowly on the fifth week. The tularemia-causing germs penetrate the body through a break in the skin; in other cases, it may be by contact with the internal membranes. Despite the fact that these germs occur generally in nature, most cases of rabbit fever result from contact with infected rabbits, hence the name given to this infectious disease.

But contact with infected rabbits is not the only cause in many other cases of tularemia; it is also possible for a person to acquire rabbit fever through any of the following: insect bites, eating inadequately-cooked meats of infected animals, or drinking contaminated water. It is important, therefore, to take great caution when handling rabbits or any other rodent; the animals' fur may be carrying the germs. Meats, especially poultry and flesh of wild fowl, should be sufficiently cooked before they are eaten. Drinking water of suspicious purity should be appropriately purified before use.

Cases of rabbit fever in which the lungs are affected are particularly serious. Such cases, if not treated at once, can be fatal. Doctors often prescribe streptomycin for antibiotic, the same one prescribed to my daughter's classmate. The patient should stay in bed, have a liberal diet of foods that can be digested easily, and be given sufficient amounts of fluid. Applying an ice bag over lymph nodes or ulcerated areas for about fifteen to twenty minutes every hour can somehow alleviate the condition. The doctor will prescribe a special medication or treatment in cases when tularemia has affected one or both eyes. [Read the Original Article]

Source: http://www.idph.state.il.us/public/hb/hbtulare.htm

Whitlow is Felon Alright

In ordinary talk, felon - in the adjective form - describes someone (or something) as being wicked. In the field of pathology, however, felon refers to the painful infection which characteristically affects the tissues of the fingertip. Used either way, the term would not really differ much in meaning.

Felon, also called whitlow, usually begins as an infection of the skin surrounding the fingernails. Certain fungi and bacteria, often the exceedingly pernicious staphylococci, are known to cause whitlow. The infectious germs may enter through a break in the skin from a deep pinprick, splinter, thorn, hangnail, or even from manicuring. Several years back, I experienced having a severe case of whitlow - the result of my habitual pushing back of my cuticles. The oral medication prescribed by my doctor, coupled by the lancing she did on my infected left-hand forefinger, cured me of the condition.

From the skin immediately around the fingernails, the infection may spread into the tissues of the fingertip. When this happens, the inflammation and pus become entrenched among the tendons and tendon sheaths, or even close to the bone. To prevent the tendons from being cast off or the bone from being damaged, lancing must be done promptly. Failing this may result to a deformed or crippled finger or thumb. The pus has to be drained immediately lest the infection spreads to other parts of the hand and cause crippling. In worse cases, the infection may travel to the bloodstream and cause blood poisoning. In lancing, the use of a local or general anesthetic is often necessary.

People whose hands get wet a great deal are extremely susceptible to whitlow. Protecting the hands with rubber gloves is the simplest way of guarding against the infection. A little talcum powder sprinkled in the gloves can be helpful for extra protection. A pair of cotton gloves worn under the rubber gloves can likewise provide additional protection. Cutting or pushing back cuticles should also be avoided; leaving cuticles in place on the nail plate is important in keeping the fingernails and their surrounding areas dry.

Consult a doctor as soon as you notice that whitlow has started; the doctor will most likely prescribe an oral antibiotic which is the standard treatment for such an infection. For chronic whitlow, the doctor will probably prescribe an antifungal lotion. For severe cases, as what I once had, the doctor will prescribe an appropriate oral medication. [Read the Original Article]

Source: http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/w/whitlow/basics.htm

Computer Vision Syndrome: How Regular Computer Users Can Avoid This Condition

What's a workplace like without the desktop computer? To answer this question, let's go back to the time when typewriters were the dominant pieces of equipment in most offices. Typists constantly pecked away at keys, returned the carriage every so often, erased and corrected errors now and then, inserted new sheets of paper (with a carbon paper in between two sheets to produce duplicate copies) after every completed page, and continuously filed papers for reference. For those born in the present computer age, this may sound too daunting. It is also quite possible that people who are familiar with that scene (the era of typewriters) would not want to remember that time anymore.

Indeed the desktop computer brought about a radical change in the set-up of workplaces. It substantially shortened the time it takes for one to do and complete a task; work output is increased and deadlines are met. There's a trade-off though. Using personal computers has been pinpointed as the cause of some cases of backache, sore neck, injured wrists, and eyestrain. Optometrists refer to the latter problem as computer vision syndrome.

Spending a long time working in front of a computer screen promotes computer vision syndrome. This condition has the following symptoms: watery and irritated eyes, blurred vision, aching forehead, sensitivity to light, and momentary nearsightedness.

One cause of computer vision syndrome is improper room lighting. A computer screen should be placed in an area where no overhead light or window can create a glare on it. If possible, eliminate glare if it so exists by making the necessary adjustment on the source of light. If total elimination of glare isn't possible, at least reduce it by installing a special cover on the screen (antiglare screen).

The computer screen should be turned as bright as it will go without blurring. Ideally, it should be about three times brighter than the prevailing light around the area. Note that it is much better to use incandescent bulbs than fluorescent lights as they cause less glare. Also, diffuse light is a lot better than direct light.

Proper positioning of the computer screen can help a lot in preventing computer vision syndrome. It should be positioned directly in front of the user at a comfortable height, with its top at about eye level; the angle of viewing should be adjustable. The screen, and any reference material being used, should be kept at a distance of no less than 20 inches (approximately 500 millimeters) from the user's eyes.

The other items in the workplace should also be positioned properly. For example, the computer keyboard and the chair should both be positioned at comfortable heights. For this purpose, it is important that the table height, rather than the chair height, is the one that has to be adjustable.

Optometrists suggest that to avoid having computer vision syndrome, a person - while using a computer - has to blink frequently or use artificial tears every few hours. Every half hour, the computer user has to look at something soothing to the eyes, such as a tree or any green object, 20 meters (6 meters) away. The user also has to take a break for at least 15 minutes after every couple of hours of continuously working in front of a computer screen. [Read the Original Article]

Sources: http://www.allaboutvision.com/cvs/ and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision_syndrome

How to Relieve Foot Pain Caused by Bunions

A friend of mine complains a lot about her bunions. Her case has become all too familiar for me, as I have heard of similar complaints from so many other people, including two of my cousins. And in all these cases that I've heard of, the common cause was the wearing of ill-fitting shoes. So what exactly are bunions?

Bunions are tender, painful enlargement of joint tissues at the big toe's base. Since the entire big toe is now inclined toward the others, the enlargement seems larger than it really is. Bunions are far more common in women than in men, and usually develop at the same time on both feet. The usual cause is an abnormal alignment or dislocation in part of the bone at the base of the big toe. This is made even worse by high-heeled, tight or pointed shoes.

During walking, a narrow shoe subjects the joint to an increased friction and pressure. Pointy shoes do the same by inclining the end of the big toes toward the others. This makes the joints more protuberant and more subject to pressure irritation. The irritation of the damaged structures stimulates overgrowth of all involved tissues. As the irritation continues, the deformity becomes greater. In severe cases, the big toe is almost entirely dislocated from the corresponding bone of the foot.

My friend and all the others who I know suffer from bunions have good reason to complain. Depending on the severity of the deformity, bunions can make walking both tiring and painful. Swollen bunions may become so large that no shoe will fit over them. There have been indications likewise that bunions can hasten the beginning of osteoarthritis in the joint.

The problem caused by bunions can become irreversible in a fairly brief time. For this reason, bunions have to be treated at such time that they first appear. Consequently, wearing properly-fitting and comfortable shoes at all times is very important. Specifically, wear shoes that will allow the big toes to assume their normal straightforward position. Using soft padding between the big toe and the second toe can also help. Walking barefoot whenever possible can also help a lot; this can ease the pressure on the joint and thus help the inflammation to abate. In mild cases, rest and a hot foot bath will bring relief. Later, the calloused skin may be pared away and the affected area covered by a bunion plaster.

Standard orthopedic surgery is sometimes necessary, especially for an enlarged and chronically inflamed bunion. This is designed to take away the bony protrusion and realign the disfigured joint. However, this surgery, called bunionectomy, may leave the tissues tender and sensitive as before. [Read the Original Article]

Vitamin D Privation: Rickets in Children, Osteomalacia in Adults

A lot of the nutritional diseases are considered deficiency diseases; they are generally attributable to a shortfall in the body's supply of certain food components, foremost of which are vitamins. To help the body absorb calcium easier, which is vital in one's having strong bones and teeth, a sufficient supply of vitamin D is needed. A good supply of vitamin D likewise helps in preventing, or reversing cases of, osteoporosis, as well as in reducing the risk of colon cancer.

Studies, however, show that many people are vitamin D-deficient. The ideal amounts of vitamin D an individual has to have daily, according to nutritionists and health experts, are: 5 micrograms (200 international units) until the age of fifty; 10 micrograms (400 international units) for ages over fifty to seventy; and 15 micrograms (600 international units) over the age of seventy. Deficiency in vitamin D is the cause of rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.

Young children, usually between the ages of six months and one-and-a half years, who are deficient in vitamin D often develop rickets; their bones fail to harden. Unusual sweating of the head, irritability, and restlessness are the early signs of this condition. The joints situated between bone and cartilage at the ribs' front end then begin to increase in size. This enlargement of the said joints results in the formation of two rows of hard nodules, which are evident in thin children with rickets.

Children with rickets may also suffer from other impairments, such as their fontanel (the soft, pulsating spot in the top of the skull) remaining open long past the infantile stage when they should be closed; the bones that form their joints (especially the wrist joints) are larger - but softer - than they should be; and their abdomen may thrust outward, with their bowels being constipated. Rickets often causes a child to be knock-kneed or bow-legged. A young girl with rickets may suffer from pelvic deformity which may persist until her mature years; normal childbirth becomes difficult in such a case.

In adults, an increased susceptibility to bone fracture is the main symptom of osteomalacia. This condition often develops in adults due to poor diet and not having enough sunlight; or it may be due to impairment in the ability of the person to make use of the nutrients he/she eats and the sunlight he/she gets. Pregnant women are especially at risk from osteomalacia since their increased requirement for calcium (essential for fetal bone development) also increases their vitamin D requirement.

In a lot of cases, skeletal deformity resulting from either rickets or osteomalacia is incurable. Prevention, for this reason, is therefore very important. A diet containing sufficient amount of vitamin D is not difficult to obtain. Whole milk and egg yolks, for example, supply good amounts of vitamin D. Another means by which one can avoid having rickets or osteomalacia is through moderate exposure to sunlight, which aids the body in synthesizing vitamin D. [Read the Original Article]

Source: http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamind.asp

Hirsutism: What Causes Superfluous Hair Growth in Women

Men seldom, or do not at all, object to a tendency to excessive hair growth. But for women, hirsutism - the growth of superfluous hair - is something they naturally regard with extreme repugnance. A friend of mine is particularly indignant at the mess the cream she uses to remove unwanted hair from her face creates, not to mention the mild irritation she experiences each time she applies it. She's hoping she'll be able to afford an electrolysis soon enough.

What exactly causes hirsutism? Why does it seem to be more common in brunettes than in blondes? And why is it not unusual for women to develop superfluous hair on the face at puberty, during pregnancy, and during menopause?

A major factor in hirsutism is heredity, with hormone activity often working as the trigger. The superfluous hair often appears during pregnancy and gets more pronounced with each successive pregnancy. But in other cases, the excess hair growth becomes stable instead of steadily increasing.

In a few instances, hirsutism is caused by a systemic disorder, such as by a disturbance of the endocrine glands or by the development of certain male traits. When this happens, it is likely that other conditions - such as menstrual irregularities and acne - are also present. To ascertain the cause of every case of hirsutism, an exhaustive laboratory and medical examination is necessary. A doctor experienced in this condition (ideally an endocrinologist) will then outline the options available for the treatment of each examined case.

Superfluous hair growth may also be the result of having used certain medications, an example of which is prednisone which is used either as an immunosuppressant or as an anti-inflammatory agent. Since the effect to the body of this type of medication cannot be eliminated, the solution in this particular case may be the removal of the extra hair on a regular basis by means of any one of the known hair-removal methods.

Plucking and shaving are the most practical and safest methods for a woman to get rid of unwanted hair. In another method, a depilatory cream (as that used by my friend) is applied to dissolve surface hair. Such creams however, while effective, can be messy and may irritate the skin. Waxing, on the other hand, is a tedious and painful process; it can also irritate the skin.

A safe alternative for the permanent removal of superfluous hair is electrolysis. However, this method is both time-consuming and expensive. The procedure makes use of a needle to run an electric current to the hair root. The resulting damage allows for the easy removal of the unwanted hair with the use of tweezers. One very important aspect of this hair-removal method is that it inhibits new hair growth. [Read the Original Article]

Source: http://familydoctor.org/online/famdocen/home/common/hormone/210.html

How to Avoid Getting a Disease from Your Dog

At 49, I still have to hear someone oppose the oft-repeated line that "dogs are man's best friend." I probably will never get that chance ever, especially when I think about all the good things I've heard or read about having a pet dog at home. Of course, I know I'm not alone here. Many people recognize the fact that caring for an animal - especially a dog - provides some health benefits to its owner. Some studies concluded that dogs improve the health of their owners because of two things their owners get from having them around: companionship and exercise.

But there is a third "something" that dog owners may get from their well-loved pets, although this has nothing to do with bettering their health; on the contrary, it is something they should guard against from contact with their ever-loyal guards - disease. As a matter of fact, dogs can cause a number of human diseases.

Brucellosis, or undulant fever, is a disease caused by a particular germ - brucella - which occurs in the blood and in certain organs, most especially the spleen. This disease, which may be acquired through contact with an infected dog, has the following initial symptoms: loss of appetite, weakness, headache, night sweats, constipation, and fever that increases irregularly. In many cases, there is a mild bronchitis accompanied by coughing. Waves of fever occur and the sufferer gradually becomes weak and anemic, with his joints often painful and swollen. This disease may last for about four months, although in some cases it can continue for years. While brucellosis is not considered a serious disease as it seldom ends in one's death, it can physically impair the sufferer for a very long time.

Leptospirosis, or spirochetal jaundice, is another disease a person may get from contact with an infected dog. This disease is caused by Leptospira interrogans (icterohaemorrhagiae), a member of a family of parasites. In the early stages of the disease, these parasites are present in the patient's blood or in his liver. In the course of the disease, the parasites may be found in the patient's urine. Contact of broken skin with an infected dog is the usual way through which this disease may be acquired. The incubation period takes place in seven to twelve days. Early symptoms include headache, nausea, vomiting, and chills; these are followed by muscle and abdominal pains, severely aching limbs, rising fever, and thirst. Cases of leptospirosis may differ widely in their symptoms; often, the disease may easily be mistaken for another one.

Trypanosomiasis, or Chagas' disease, is caused by the blood-dwelling organism Trypanosoma cruzi, which enters the body through contact of scratches or wounds with an infected dog. The disease is usually more severe in children than in adults. A common feature of this disease is high fever that lasts for some time. In almost all cases, there are edema of one side of the face and inflammation of the corresponding eye. Swelling of local lymph nodes and enlarged liver are two of the early signs of this disease. Acute symptoms include rapid pulse, enlargement and irregular beating of the heart, and convulsions. While these acute symptoms do not last very long, they often end fatally for young children. In adults, heart damage is the most prominent feature of trypanosomiasis.

We hear a lot about rabies (caused by a virus belonging to the rhabdovirus group), ringworm (caused by several species of pathogenic dermatophytes), and salmonellosis (caused by the bacteria salmonella) being caused by bites of or contact with infected dogs. It is important to see your doctor at once at the first signs of any of these diseases. [Read the Original Article]

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dog_diseases

Acute Mastitis: How to Alleviate Symptoms of This Breast Disorder

Acute inflammation, or acute mastitis in the medical field, is considered the most common breast disorder. This condition, which is usually caused by infection, almost always occurs during the early stages of breast-feeding. Small injuries or fissures of the nipple often precede mastitis and facilitate entry of disease germs. Usually the nipple and the skin surrounding it are the only areas of the breast affected by mastitis.

A simple cleansing of the nipple by means of frequently applying a saturated solution of boric acid can ease the inflammation. Of course, the solution should not be applied while the baby is being nursed, except when it is then washed off with boiled water that has been cooled. Using a nipple shield when breast-feeding can be helpful, especially in cases when only the nipple or nipple area is affected by the inflammation. Tiny cracks that develop in the nipple can be covered over with tincture of benzoin, a skin-protecting agent.

In acute mastitis, only one breast is usually involved. Here, the inflammation covers considerable extent, acting upon inner and deeper parts of the breast. Pain, tenderness, and swelling in the breast are the usual first signs of acute mastitis; these may be accompanied by a chill and moderate to high fever. In more severe cases, a rapid pulse, coupled with headache, can occur.

Acute mastitis may not exhibit favorable reaction to simple treatment. Consult a doctor at once at the first signs of the condition. The doctor will most likely prescribe an antibiotic to prevent the buildup of an abscess. If an abscess does develop, the doctor may consider an appropriate surgical method to drain it.

On her own, the patient needs to observe some measures to alleviate her condition. Foremost is that the baby should be taken off breast-feeding. The inflamed breast should be supported with a binder or a brassiere; take care that this is not worn too tight. The patient may also cover the inflamed breast with a dry towel, laying an ice bag over it, and keeping both the towel and the ice bag in place for about a couple of hours. This procedure may be repeated every four hours.

Except when the condition called engorgement (the presence of too much milk in the mother's breasts that causes pain) is present, the patient should not attempt to pump milk out of the breast. If such is the case however, a doctor must supervise the use of a breast pump.

It is vital for mothers suffering from acute mastitis to have sufficient bed rest. She should drink water as much as she wants. And for as long as fever lasts, her diet should consist only of liquid and soft foods. [Read the Original Article]

Source: http://www.internethealthlibrary.com/Health-problems/Mastitis.htm

Dilatation and Curettage: Treatment for Continuous Heavy Menstrual Bleeding

There was a point in the past, not too long ago, when my niece developed heavy menstrual bleeding, lasting up to twelve days. Upon her doctor's advice, she underwent a surgical procedure called dilatation and curettage. The operation was quite successful in that it was able to correct her condition at once.

A variety of factors can cause heavy menstrual bleeding. One example is abnormality in either the timing or amount of hormones produced by the ovaries. Under such condition, it may be necessary for your doctor to do various tests, each of which is aimed at measuring the hormone output of your ovaries. If the doctor determines that the amount of hormones produced is abnormal, thus creating imbalances, he may prescribe hormones to remedy the situation.

Additionally, your doctor may perform other examinations to determine the existence of either of two conditions that may be causing your heavy menstrual bleeding: an infection in any of your reproductive organs or the presence of fibroids, benign growths that usually develop in the wall of the uterus.

If heavy menstrual bleeding goes on inspite of all that your doctor has done, dilatation and curettage may finally solve the problem. This relatively simple surgical procedure makes use of two instruments from which its name, dilatation and curettage, was derived: a dilator is used to open the entrance to the uterus (cervix); and then, the surgeon scrapes the lining of the uterus (endometrium) with the use of a curette. The scrapings are collected and scrutinized under a microscope. This procedure enables the doctor to discover the source of the problem, making it easy for him to deal with it using a treatment he deems appropriate for the condition.

In a lot of cases, heavy menstrual bleeding appears to be remedied by the mere scraping part of the operation; this was very true in my niece's case. For this reason, a dilatation and curettage surgery can be considered a medical procedure that is both diagnostic and curative.

A dilatation and curettage operation is a brief medical procedure. It requires that the patient be under a general anesthetic and, in general, for her to stay overnight in the hospital. According to my niece, patients may experience pain, as well as some bleeding, for a few days. Like all other surgeries, a dilatation and curettage operation carries some risks. These, along with its benefits, should be thoroughly discussed with your doctor before deciding on going through with the operation. [Read the Original Article]

Hernia is Actually a Muscle Problem

A friend of mine, who is really overweight, was recently found to have a small bulge just below the groin crease. A further examination confirmed that she has femoral hernia, one of the common types of hernia to which women, particularly those who are overweight, are prone. Doctors say that a hernia, regardless of the type, is actually a muscle problem; it is a bulging of a part (or even all) of an organ through a debilitated area in the muscle or other tissue in which it is contained.

How a hernia develops was explained by my friend's doctor. A portion of the intestine, or some of the fat that envelops it, presses through a deficient area - as in a gap - in the abdominal wall's muscles. In inguinal hernia (the type to which men are more prone), for example, the abdominal organs press through the abdominal wall just above the groin crease (notice that the area of occurrence of this type of hernia is opposite to that in my friend's case), creating a large protrusion. Another type of hernia, called hiatus hernia, takes place in the diaphragm.

According to my friend's doctor, heredity may be a factor in the muscle weakness that causes a hernia. In the case of my friend, however, her doctor emphasized that it is due to poor muscle tone. The only indication of the existence of a hernia in its early stages may be a protrusion. In some cases - and this is true in my friend's condition - tenderness at the protrusion's area and a feeling of heaviness accompany hernia.

My friend's doctor made it clear that a hernia, no matter what type it is, can be very dangerous if not remedied at once. For one, the proper clearing of bowel may be prevented by the herniated muscle's trapping of a portion of the intestine. In a severe hernia, the passage of blood to the affected area of the intestine may be cut off; such a case may result to gangrene, or the local death of soft tissues.

Because of her doctor's warning on the serious effects to health a hernia can cause, my friend agreed to go through a surgery to have hers remedied. Surgery, after all, is still the best means by which a hernia can be remedied. The procedure, according to my friend's doctor, is rather simple, and takes only about an hour to perform. Here, the bulging tissue is pushed back to its normal position; the muscle wall is then mended. [Read the Original Article]

Surgery is the Only Certified Treatment for Cataracts

At age 79 in March last year, my mother underwent surgery on her left eye to remove the cataract that has been impairing her sight. Amidst my and my sister's apprehension because of her age, my mom had to go through a similar operation on her right eye four months later. Her eye surgeon explained to us that both operations were necessary as it is only through surgery that a cataract can be treated.

Another doctor, with whom I had a conversation a few days after my mom's second operation, confirmed that surgery is indeed the only way through which a cataract, which has reached the stage where it is hindering vision, can be treated. The operation for a cataract is a safe, simple, and painless (as my mom affirmed) procedure, lasting an hour or even less; about ninety-five percent of all cataract surgeries are successful.

Depending on the patient's health and on the condition of the lenses of the eyes, the eye surgeon can choose from among the different surgical procedures available to him. In my mom's first surgery, for example, the eye surgeon opted for the technique in which he extracted the opaque portion of the lens of my mom's left eye with the use of a suction device. But in the second operation, the same eye surgeon, using a freezing probe, removed the entire lens of my mom's right eye.

Another technique makes use of a high-speed vibrator to break up the cataract, which is then drawn by suction through a hollow needle. I used to think, as many other people may have too, that using laser is another method for removing cataract. My mom's eye surgeon made it clear that lasers are never used in cataract surgeries.

The eye's power to refract light is almost entirely lost with the removal of its lens. The lens, therefore, must be replaced if the patient is to have a clear vision again. To restore the focusing power of my mom's eyes, she is now using a pair of thick eyeglasses as prescribed by her eye surgeon. In other cases, contact lenses are recommended as these cover the eyes completely; cataract patients likewise seem to tolerate contact lenses well as these have improved in quality over the years.

There are a few simple instructions to observe strictly when recovering from a cataract surgery. The set of orders from my mom's eye surgeon includes avoiding bending over, rubbing her eyes, lifting heavy objects, and taking aspirin (at least one week after each of her two operations). She was also instructed to take it easy during her convalescing period to give her eyes the chance to heal quickly. [Read the Original Article]

Yeast Infections: Dealing with Their Root Cause, Not Just Their Symptoms

A lot of people are, without doubt, familiar with the troubling symptoms of yeast infections. As a matter of fact, yeast infections are too common that it is highly improbable for most women of today - and some men as well - not to know them. To prove this point, check the shelves of your local pharmacy; you will surely find they're stacked with various brands of prescription medicines and over-the-counter medications. In addition, think about the comparatively enormous amount of money that people spend every year to have their yeast infections treated.

The principal cause of nearly all yeast infections is the diploid fungus known as Candida albicans (also called monilia). These microorganisms can increase in numbers at such a rapid pace, especially when certain conditions are present, such as an impaired immune system or mental stress. The use of antibiotics can likewise aid in the quick growth of these bacteria. In women, the progressive development of Candida, if remained unchecked, can lead to such discomforting or irritating symptoms as vaginal discharge, redness, and itching; it can even cause pain during physical sexual contact.

The methods for treating yeast infections differ; so are the kinds of medications available. Over-the-counter medications, for example, include such types as ointments, creams, ovules, and suppositories. The reasons why many people opt for these forms of medication to treat their yeast infection is because of the convenience of easily obtaining them and the relative ease by which they are used. However, using these products again and again may present some problems. An infection, for instance, may develop resistance to a particular treatment and will likely survive exposure to it regardless how frequent the same is applied.

Certain prescription medicines may pose some risks, too. One example is oral fluconazole which are not prescribed by doctors to an expectant or a breastfeeding mother due to certain side effects it is known to carry. It is also widely recognized that most of the over-the-counter and prescription medications treat only the symptoms of yeast infections; they have not shown any positive effects at dealing with Candida - their root cause. It is not surprising, therefore, when we hear of someone saying that her yeast infection is back (at an even worse state than before) a few weeks after she thought she had herself healed of the vexatious infection already.

As for douches, their effectiveness against yeast infections has not been proven; hence, doctors usually dissuade women from using these products if only for this purpose.

Yeast infections, according to doctors, are highly responsive to treatment. The key, however, is in finding the right type of treatment - one that will deal with the very root cause of the infection and have a lasting effect. Your doctor should be able to direct you to the type of treatment that will best address your condition. [Read the Original Article]

Source: http://www.medicinenet.com/yeast_vaginitis/article.htm

Rodent Ulcer: the Most Frequent of All Skin Cancers

My friend has some noticeable red patches on her face and neck. She did tell me in at least one occasion that she has spent a lot of time in the sun over the years and thought she has a skin cancer, or at least the beginnings of one. Not wanting to leave any uncertainties in her mind, she decided to consult her doctor at once. Her doctor then referred her to a dermatologist for some visual examinations. Suspecting that my friend has a skin cancer, the dermatologist removed a small piece of the growth and sent it to a pathologist for a laboratory examination.

The pathologist's findings confirmed that the cells were indeed cancerous. Further tests revealed that my friend has rodent ulcer, the most frequent of the three major kinds of skin cancer (the other two being squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma). Also called basal cell carcinoma, rodent ulcer causes local erosions of tissues if not attended to at once. This form of skin cancer is slow-growing and can be successfully treated in nearly all cases. If left untreated, however, it may spread.

In human beings, skin cancer is the most common kind of cancer. What's good to know is that there is a higher rate of success in treating skin cancer than in any other kind of cancer. But the rule remains that it must be treated. Those who are most likely to develop skin cancer are persons between the ages of forty and sixty. The principal cause of all the three major kinds of skin cancer is overexposure of the skin to sunlight. This is especially so if the skin is dry, scabrous, and of a complexion that doesn't easily tan. Continuous or repeated irritation of any kind is likewise a probable cause.

Rodent ulcer may start out as small, harsh patches of skin that are either paler or redder than the surrounding skin. It can also begin as small lumps that bleed easily and seem to heal too slowly or not at all. It is so tiny to begin with, about the size of a pinhead. But it will grow and spread into surrounding tissues if left untreated. In such a case, scarring becomes more likely and treatment more difficult.

In the early stage of rodent ulcer, doctors may surgically remove the growth with a knife; or they may freeze it with liquid nitrogen, which is what was done in my friend's case. In this freezing treatment, called cryosurgery, the cold is regulated to destroy the cancer cells, and the wound heals fully in a few weeks. There is very little or no scarring in this kind of treatment, the reason why my friend opted for it.

While surgery with a knife creates a more noticeable scar, it enables the doctor to examine closely what has been removed and determine whether all the cancer has been taken out. After surgery, the wound may be treated immediately with electricity to destroy any cancer cells left behind, and to halt bleeding by sealing the blood vessels. [Read the Original Article]

Source: http://www.rodentulcer.co.uk/aboutrodentulcers.html

Achalasia Vs. Diffuse Spasm: How These Esophageal Disorders Differ

Some things can go wrong with the esophagus - the muscular tube through which swallowed food and liquid pass going into the stomach. Most of the esophageal disorders involve a condition, called faulty peristalsis, in which the muscles in the esophagus are not coordinating satisfactorily, making deglutition (the process of swallowing food or liquid) difficult or painful. I remember the time when my husband was complaining about the pain he experiences whenever he swallows food that I had to take him to the doctor to find out what's wrong.

As diagnosed by the doctor, my husband was suffering from a condition known as achalasia. According to the doctor, this condition and another one, called diffuse spasm, are the two traditional classifications of esophageal disorders. Both disorders produce either difficulty in swallowing or pain in swallowing, or both. These symptoms may take place sporadically or occur frequently that they feel constant.

In achalasia, the sphincter muscle located between the esophagus and the stomach is not opening when it's supposed to. Because of this, the contractions that move food along (called staltic waves) fail to push food into the stomach. This results to the retention in the esophagus of the food that you eat. Since there is no other place for the food to go, the esophagus becomes enlarged and contorted. People suffering from achalasia often experience the casting up of incompletely digested food into the mouth.

In diffuse spasm, the person suffers from the same feeling of discomfort as that experienced in achalasia. However in diffuse spasm, both the upper and lower esophageal openings are likely to be in good working condition. The trouble is caused by the irregular pressure waves, obstructing the process of contraction. Consequently, food can't move along.

The usual medical approach in treating achalasia is the dilatation of the imperfectly-functioning sphincter muscle that is causing obstruction and retention in the esophagus. My husband had to go through repeated dilatations as his doctor deemed these were necessary. Rightly so, and fortunately enough, my husband was successfully treated of his condition. Otherwise, surgery was the next option being contemplated by his doctor.

Actually, according to my husband's doctor, the person suffering from achalasia may be able to, at least in part, control the condition himself. Posturing is usually the key. This means that the person will have to move his body in a manner that will force swallowed food downwards, thereby enabling it to reach the stomach. Eating small meals and chewing food well can likewise offer a great deal of help.

My husband was even more fortunate not to have diffuse spasm instead. His doctor explained that dilatation or medication cannot successfully treat this condition, although either of these may provide some relief. Surgery is the only alternative that can effectively treat this disorder. [Read the Original Article]

Myxedema: the Later-developing Severe Type of Hypothyroidism

The year-end and year-opening holidays that just passed weren't particularly merry for my cousins living in Grand Teton Drive in our Pacifica (California) neighborhood. Their mom (my very loving aunt) has been diagnosed to be suffering from myxedema, one of two extreme cases of hypothyroidism (the other one being cretinism). I've been used to my aunt's exuberant personality; but when I visited her family toward the end of last year, I found her in a rather pitiful state. She appeared mentally dull, her voice sounded hoarse, and she had difficulty responding to what I was saying because she had an obvious hearing impairment. But the most noticeable sign that something's wrong with her was that her face has become swollen in a distinctive manner. How did these things happen to her? What exactly is the condition she's suffering from?

From the explanation of the doctor handling my aunt's case, my cousins told me that myxedema is a severe type of hypothyroidism, a condition in which the thyroid (the endocrine gland lying at the anterior base of the neck) is underactive and does not produce enough of its hormones (thyroxine); or it can be that the thyroxine secreted is of poor quality. Surprisingly though in this condition, the thyroid may be considerably enlarged (this most likely explains the swollen look on my aunt's face).

Hypothyroidism occurs mainly in women over the age of forty. Iodine deficiency in the diet is a common cause of this condition. But in my aunt's myxedema case, according to her doctor, the cause is an autoimmune disorder which is destroying her thyroid, effectively removing the source of thyroxine. The lack of these hormones is resulting to the general slowing down of her body's metabolism; even her heart rate is slowing down.

Besides the very low production of thyroxine, a decrease in the oxidation in the body also characterizes myxedema. In this condition, the heart may become dilated and its action, weaker. Correspondingly, heartbeat and breathing are slower. Also, the patient may exhibit greater susceptibility to infection or experience scant perspiration. Temperature is usually below normal and the patient becomes more sensitive to the cold.

Similarly evident in my aunt's case is her having gained weight, her body appearing fat and soggy. There are likewise the possibilities of her hair growing more slowly or falling out easily, her nails becoming brittle or easily cracked, and her skin turning scabrous, puffy, and thickened - all of which, as per her doctor, are symptoms of myxedema.

The dreariest piece of information I got about myxedema is that if it's not treated, the person may lapse into unconsciousness and eventually succumb to death. The doctor has ordered a series of laboratory tests on my aunt to continuously monitor the amount of thyroxine present in her blood. I understand that she's currently receiving some form of medication, specifically thyroxine medication, obviously to make up for the deficiency in these thyroid hormones in her. [Read the Original Article]

The Different Types of Headaches: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments

One of man's most common indications of the presence of physical disturbance or bodily disorder is headache. When one gets a headache, it's not his brain that's actually aching. According to doctors, while troubles in the brain may cause headaches, the brain itself isn't capable of feeling pain. The brain does register pain occurring in the different parts of the body, but it lacks the sensory nerves that collect and convey the sensation of pain.

When one gets a headache, the blood vessels, membranes, and various tissues in his head are the ones that instantly feel the pain since sensory nerves exist in and around these parts. Headaches usually occur in reaction to the tensions, pressures, and frustrations brought on by competitive living. The usual types of headache include vascular, tension, allergy, hangover, and orgasmic. Under the vascular type are migraine, cluster, and caffeine. Further down the list under migraine headache are classic migraine and common migraine.

Migraine headache is a severe, disabling type of headache which recurs frequently and occurs most often in daytime. It is usually associated with such conditions as dizziness, vomiting, dryness of the mouth, mood swings, and changes in body temperature. Migraine headache usually occurs as a slowed reaction to emotional stresses. Warning signs, such as blurred vision and numbness, often precede a classic migraine; pain ensues within about half an hour. A common migraine, on the other hand, usually occurs without any warning. The pain in both types of migraine is throbbing. At its onset, one eye is affected, and then one or both sides of the head. The pain may last from a few hours to about a couple of days. Some of the usual causes of migraine headache are skipped meals, fatigue, stress, menstruation, menopause, changes in altitude, and the use of oral contraceptives. Other possible causes include consuming nitrate-cured foods and foods containing monosodium glutamate or the amino acid tyramine, such as chocolate, mature cheeses, and alcohol. For mild cases of migraine headache, a change in diet or the taking of paracetamol or aspirin may be effective. For chronic cases, medications prescribed by a doctor are the best treatments.

As its name suggests, cluster headache occurs in clusters of up to ten headaches within a twenty-four-hour period. Each episode lasts from a few minutes to over an hour, and the pattern may continue for weeks or even months. The pain in cluster headache can be very severe, initially affecting the surrounding areas of one eye, and then stretching out to the temple, cheek, or jaw. Unlike migraine headache, cluster headache occurs most often at night. It isn't clear what exactly causes cluster headache, although some doctors point to drinking alcohol and smoking tobacco as possible culprits. Obviously, staying away from alcohol beverages and tobacco products can help prevent cluster headache.

It shouldn't be difficult to guess what caffeine headache is and what causes it. This type of headache, which produces a throbbing, two-sided pain, usually occurs after a heavy consumption of coffee. In case of abstention, caffeine headache may occur several hours after downing the last cup. There is no treatment for this type of headache other than reducing coffee consumption. Caffeine pills may work in withdrawal headaches.

In tension headache, a dull, two-sided pain can occur anytime, affecting the neck and both shoulders. The duration of each episode may differ from case to case. Depression and stress are the two known causes of tension headache. Treatment ranges from the simple taking of rest to undergoing relaxation training or psychotherapy.

Squeezing pain on both sides of the head, which usually starts within about five hours of exposure to a substance that induces allergy, characterizes allergy headache. As in tension headache, the duration of each episode of allergy headache varies from case to case. Avoiding allergens is the sure way of preventing this type of headache. While antihistamines are a common treatment, immunotherapy may be necessary in some cases.

Hangover headache brings a throbbing, two-sided pain on waking up after heavy drinking of alcohol beverages. Taking enough rest and consuming sufficient fluids are the keys to treating this type of headache.

In orgasmic headache, a very severe, two-sided pain occurs during and after orgasm. This type of headache is caused, in part, by the hypertension that accompanies orgasm. In some cases, it may be caused by anxiety. Taking sufficient rest is a common, easy treatment, although doctor-prescribed anti-inflammatory medications may be required in some cases.

There are cases of headaches that call for the immediate arrangement of a meeting with the doctor. Such cases include headaches which always occur in a specific area, headaches which become more severe with each episode, and headaches associated with changes in personality. Requiring urgent medical attention even more are headaches associated with convulsions, double vision, high fever, weight loss, fainting, or paralysis. [Read the Original Article]

Pancreatitis: a Very Dangerous Condition that Tends to Relapse Repeatedly

I still remember quite well how a friend of mine came to me one day to express indignation over her husband's excessive alcohol consumption, concerned that her husband might develop heart disease. She was right to be indignant all right, but it was another condition that her husband developed from too much alcohol drinking - pancreatitis. Indeed, doctors affirm that immoderate consumption of alcoholic beverage is a factor in the occurrence of pancreatitis.

Should my friend be somehow thankful then it wasn't the treacherous heart disease her husband got? The answer is a resounding no; any medical condition is always a cause for concern. This is especially true in the case of my friend's husband who was diagnosed of having acute pancreatitis. As his condition was deemed very dangerous, his doctor recommended an immediate surgery.

There are two types of pancreatitis: acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis. Both types refer to an inflammatory disorder that affects the pancreas - the organ that produces digestive enzymes and the hormones insulin and glucagon which assist in breaking down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Referring to the particular acute pancreatitis case of my friend's husband, it was indicated in his medical record that his "pancreas has become inflamed as a result of the destruction of its tissue by pancreatic juice which has been prevented from flowing out through the duct going to the intestine."

It has been recorded that approximately fifty percent of acute pancreatitis sufferers go through mild symptoms and may recover sans therapeutic treatment. In the other half of the cases, severe pain can take place in the left upper or middle abdomen, which can radiate all the way to the back. The attack begins all too suddenly, and may be accompanied by nausea, vomiting, abdominal bruising, and shock. Soon the victim will be sweating profusely and prostrated, and abdominal tenderness and swelling will ensue. The condition may be likened to gallstone colic, perforated ulcer of the stomach or duodenum, or intestinal impediment.

In the case of chronic pancreatitis, there is a gradual decreasing of pancreatic operation. Because the digestion of fats is not complete in this condition, stools become fatty and malodorous. The condition likewise disrupts the digestion of starch and protein, as well as the ability of the pancreas to produce substances that counteract the activity of acid in the stomach. Consequently, there is general debility and increasing emaciation. Chronic pancreatitis may be caused by any one of these factors or conditions: alcoholism, gallstones, pancreatic stones, tuberculosis, syphilis, ulcer of the stomach or duodenum, and cancer.

Pancreatitis is a condition that tends to relapse repeatedly, with symptom-free or mild-symptom intervals between paroxysms. In the event distress does take place, there are painkilling drugs recommended to alleviate your suffering. Alcohol is definitely not allowed, and your diet may be regulated or adjusted. It may be necessary to perform surgery if the pancreatic duct is either narrowed or blocked. Also, since pancreatitis is associated with several other conditions mentioned here, its treatment is usually not distinct from that of some other condition. [Read the Original Article]

The Most Common Types of Congenital Heart Defects and How They Can Be Corrected

My friend's third child was born a "blue baby." According to the baby's pediatrician, the infant, a boy, has cyanosis - a condition in which the skin appears purplish or bluish. This condition is caused by a congenital heart defect which allows the two bloodstreams to mingle. Specifically, these refer to the oxygen-poor blood going to the lungs and oxygen-rich blood coming from the lungs going to the different body parts. As a result of this mingling, the amount of oxygen being carried to the tissues is greatly reduced.

The congenital heart defect mentioned in the case described above is called a transposition. In transposition, blood that is freshly supplied with oxygen circulates ineffectually back to the lungs; used blood, on the other hand, goes back to the body tissues without having been oxygenated. The pediatrician explained that the infant's great arteries aren't correctly connected. The exact picture reveals that the baby's aorta and pulmonary artery are attached incorrectly - the former to the right ventricle and the latter to the left ventricle, instead of the other way around. Fortunately according to the pediatrician (though this is rather odd to hear), my friend's baby boy will survive his condition since it was discovered that he has another birth defect. In this particular congenital heart defect, oxygenated blood is allowed to leak into the aorta.

Apart from those previously mentioned, there are other types of congenital heart defects. Some of the most common ones are enumerated below:

1) Atrial septal defect. This is a common defect of the septum, the wall that divides the two sides of the heart. In this condition, there is a hole between the upper two chambers of the heart.

2) Ventricular septal defect. This condition, which accounts for about thirty percent of defects in children, is known to be the most common type of congenital heart defect. A hole between the lower two chambers of the heart exists in this condition.

3) Bicuspid. This is a kind of heart-valve malformation in which the aortic valve may be formed from two leaflets, instead of three.

4) Aortic stenosis. Another kind of heart-valve malformation in which the aortic valve may be constricted.

5) Pulmonary stenosis. The third kind of heart-valve malformation in which the pulmonary valve may be narrowed.

6) Patent ductus. This is common in premature babies. Here, the blood vessel called ductus arteriosus - which connects the aorta and the pulmonary artery, and is special in new-born babies - fails to close on its own. The passageway is left open as a result.

7) Fallot's tetralogy. This is known to be the most usual cause for a blue baby, accounting for approximately ten percent of congenital heart defects in children. This condition involves four related heart malformations: pulmonary stenosis, an unusual thickening of the right ventricle wall, a misplaced aorta, and a ventricular septal defect.

8) Coarctation of the aorta. The aorta, in this condition, is severely narrowed. As such, the blood flow and blood pressure downstream from the narrowing are reduced.

Many of these congenital heart defects can be corrected by surgical procedures. As a matter of fact, some of those that were once considered implacable can now be mended. For the septal defects, for example, a surgeon can close the hole by either sewing it shut or grafting on a patch to seal the opening. For pulmonary or aortic stenosis, the surgeon can open the valve by means of surgery or with the use of a balloon catheter. For patent ductus, the surgeon can tie off and cut the abnormal ductus. For coarctation of the aorta, the surgeon can simply get rid of the constricted portion in the aorta. For Fallot's tetralogy, the surgeon performs three steps: first, he closes the ventricular defect; then, he opens the pulmonary valve; finally, he realigns the aorta. [Read the Original Article]